The Definition and Usage of Optimality Theory

In linguistics, the theory that surface forms of language reflect resolutions of conflicts between competing constraints (i.e., specific restrictions on the form[s] of a structure). Optimality Theory was introduced in the 1990s by linguists Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky (Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar, 1993/2004). Though originally developed from generative phonology, the principles of Optimality Theory have also been applied in studies of syntax, morphology, pragmatics, language change, and other areas. In Doing Optimality Theory (2008), John J. McCarthy points out that some of the most significant work on OT is available for free on the Rutgers Optimality Archive. ROA, which was created by Alan Prince in 1993, is an electronic depository of work in, on, or about OT. Its a fabulous resource for the student as well as the veteran scholar. Observations At the heart of Optimality Theory lies the idea that language, and in fact every grammar, is a system of conflicting forces. These forces are embodied by constraints, each of which makes a requirement about some aspect of grammatical output forms. Constraints are typically conflicting, in the sense that to satisfy one constraint implies the violation of another. Given the fact that no form can satisfy all constraints simultaneously, there must be some mechanism selecting forms that incur lesser constraint violations from others that incur more serious ones. This selectional mechanism involves hierarchical ranking of constraints, such that higher-ranked constraints have priority over lower-ranked ones. While constraints are universal, the rankings are not: differences in ranking are the source of cross-linguistic variation. (Renà © Kager, Optimality Theory. Cambridge University Press, 1999) Faithfulness and Markedness Constraints [Optimality Theory] holds that all languages have a set of constraints which produce the basic phonological and grammatical patterns of that particular language. In many cases, an actual utterance violates one or more of these constraints, so a sense of well-formedness applies to that utterance which violates the least number or least important constraints. Constraints can be classified in two types: faithfulness and markedness. The faithfulness principle constrains a word to match the underlying morphological form (such as plural tram -s in trams). But words like buses or dogs do not follow this constraint (the first falls foul of the constraint that prevents the pronunciation of two consecutive /s/ sounds and the second places a /z/ instead of an /s/). These two examples, though, follow markedness constraints, and in these cases the particular markedness scores higher than the faithfulness constraint, so the alternate forms are allowed. Differences between languages, then, are a ma tter of the relative importance given to particular constraints, and a description of these constitutes a description of the language. (R.L. Trask, Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts, 2nd ed., ed. by Peter Stockwell. Routledge, 2007) Constraint Interaction and the Domination Hierarchy [W]e assert that the constraints operating in a particular language are highly conflicting and make sharply contrary claims about the well-formedness of most representations. The grammar consists of the constraints together with a general means of resolving their conflicts. We argue further that this conception is an essential prerequisite for a substantive theory of UG. How does a grammar determine which analysis of a given input best satisfies a set of consistent well-formedness conditions? Optimality Theory relies on a conceptually simple but surprisingly rich notion of constraint interaction whereby the satisfaction of one constraint can be designated to take absolute priority over the satisfaction of another. The means that a grammar uses to resolve conflicts is to rank constraints in a strict domination hierarchy. Each constraint has absolute priority over all the constraints lower in the hierarchy. [O]nce the notion of constraint-precedence is brought in from the periphery and foregrounded, it reveals itself to be of remarkably wide generality, the formal engine driving many grammatical interactions. It will follow that much that has been attributed to narrowly specific constructional rules or to highly particularized conditions is actually the responsibility of very general well-formedness constraints. In addition, a diversity of effects, previously understood in terms of the triggering or blocking of rules by constraints (or merely by special conditions), will be seen to emerge from constraint interaction. (Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky, Optimality Theory: Constraint Interaction in Generative Grammar. Blackwell, 2004) The Richness of the Base Hypothesis Optimality Theory (OT) does not allow for constraints on the inputs of phonological evaluation. Output constraints are the only mechanisms for expressing phonotactic patterns. This idea of OT is referred to as the Richness of the Base hypothesis. For instance, there is no input constraint that forbids the morpheme *bnik as a morpheme of English. The output constraints will penalize such a form, and evaluate this form in such a way that the optimal output form is not faithful to this form, but different, e.g. blik. Since forms such as bnik will never surface in English, it does not make sense to store an underlying form bnik for blik. This is the effect of lexicon optimization. Thus, the phonological output constraints of a language will be reflected by the input forms. (Geert Booij, Morpheme Structure Constraints. The Blackwell Companion to Phonology: General Issues and Subsegmental Phonology, ed. by Marc van Oostendorp, Colin J. Ewen, Elizabeth Hume, Keren Rice. Blackwell, 2011) Optimality-Theoretic Syntax [T]he emergence of OT syntax seems to fit into the general tendency in syntax to blame the ungrammaticality of a sentence on the existence of a better alternative. This view on grammaticality is also found in [Noam] Chomskys Minimalist Program (Chomsky 1995), although Chomsky takes optimization to play a much more modest role than OT syntacticians do. Whereas Chomskys only criterion for evaluation is derivational cost, the inventory of violable constraints assumed in OT syntax is richer. As a result, the OT constraints interact and conflict with each other. This interaction is exploited by the assumption that constraints are ranked, and that parametrization can be reduced to differences in ranking between languages. Chomskys economic conditions, on the other hand, have no such direct parametrizing effect. In the Minimalist Program, the locus of the parametrization is the lexicon. (Introduction to Optimality Theory: Phonology, Syntax, and Acquisition, ed. by Joost Dekkers, Frank van d er Leeuw, and Jeroen van de Weijer. Oxford University Press, 2000)

A Detailed Analysis of Death of a Salesman - 1199 Words

Jennifer Mills Professor Usha Wahwani English 102 1, April 2013 A Detailed Look at Death of a Salesman Death of a Salesman has been accepted worldwide as one of the greatest American dramas to premier in theatre. The story behind the play is based on Miller’s interactions with his Uncle, a salesman whose efforts to obtain the â€Å"American Dream† and pass his success on to his two sons becomes his main focus. Miller’s life during the preparation of Death of a Salesman provides the spark and inspiration needed to pen a literary classic. Almost five decades later, Death of a Salesman’s themes is still relevant in today’s society. Arthur Asher Miller was born October 17, 1915 in Harlem, New York City. Miller was the son of Isadora and†¦show more content†¦Even the country shut down production of consumer goods to meet the needs of the war. The changes brought about an increase in industrial production. The labor force significantly increased. Almost a third of the country had a disposable income for the first time, a drastic change from nearly half of Americans suffering from poverty a year before. After the war the goal simply became developing an economy capable of providing an adequate livelihood to all its citizens, the â€Å"American Dream†. The 1940’s marks the rise of suburbs and the ideal â€Å"good life† or â€Å"American Dream† as many veterans returned home and purchased houses. In the late 1940’s and throughout the 1950’s, many pursued the â€Å"American Dream† of hard work rewarded by middle-class signs of success such as a house, a car, a college education, and household appliances. Miller wrote Act 1 of Death of a Salesman in less than twenty four hours, and completed the rest of the play within six weeks in a small studio built on his farm in Roxbury, Connecticut. Many believe the town was an ideal location for authors to settle down way from the public eye. Authors William Styron and Frank McCourt also found refuge in the New England farm town. Some suggest the peace that Roxbury provided Miller allowed him to pen Death of a Salesman, a literary classic. Today Miller’s estate contributes to about forty seven acres to the Roxbury Land Trust and Miller was laid to rest at Roxbury Center Cemetery inShow MoreRelated12 Angry Men - Analysis3445 Words   |  14 Pagescollection of twelve jurors with diverse backgrounds after hearing testimony regarding a murder case where a teen boy of â€Å"minority† ethnicity are sequestered to a deliberation room to decide whether the teen is â€Å"guilty† or â €Å"not guilty† in the stabbing death of his father. At the heart of the deliberations is to prove that the teen is â€Å"guilty beyond a reasonable doubt† and the twelve men spar in this film for one and one-half hours in a New York City court deliberation room on a very hot, summer day. 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In healthcare, there are always essential trainings and classes being held for employees to complete when learning new procedures or just refreshing their memories with requirements they do on a daily basis. These educational and training programs provide the tools required to move toward service excellence. Energized, committed and educated employees make a positive difference in a patient’s healthcare experience; untrained and undereducated employees lead to potentially unsatisfactory service situations. This is critically important since most malpractice claims and lawsuits are pursued based on patients’ feelings about those potential communication and service lapses. True service excellence, or providing services at the highest level, needs to be embraced by everyone in your organization. This can be accomplished through targeted training and educational programs focusing on improving patient, or â€Å"customer† service. Depending on the level of success you’re seeking to achieve, the level of education may be relative, but the bottom line is, an education of some sort is often paramount to future success. Completing increasingly advanced levels of education shows that you have a drive and commitment to learn and apply information, ideas, theories, and formulas to achieve a variety of tasks and goals. Another primary reason education is important, is that it’s become a basic requirement for so many employers, to even get your foot in the door. Many employers require college level education, even for roles which previously did not require it, such as administrative assistant positions. The fewer years of education you’ve completed, the fewer doors are open to you. It’s that simple. Educational 11requirements are a quick and easy way to narrow down the field of applicants, especially in situations where there are more applicants than jobs. When hiring from a field of candidates, employers prefer those who have completed the higher level of education. In addition to added income, obtaining a college education has many other benefits. The  college experience  allows a person to become more open-minded, more cultured, more rational and more consistent. According to ERIC Digest, a college-educated person is less likely to be authoritarian. A person who is less authoritarian is more likely to advance in the workplace. Additional benefits of a college education, noted by ERIC Digest, are decreased prejudice, enhanced knowledge of world affairs and enhanced social status. Greater workplace productivity and flexibility are also products of higher education. Education is important to everyone, but education is even more important in the healthcare industry. Why? Technology, math and science are key components of many healthcare roles:  Healthcare careers often require knowledge and understanding of the sciences, and technology. These fields are always changing and growing with new developments and discoveries. Therefore it’s imperative to have a basic understanding you can build on with continuing education throughout your career, to keep up with the latest changes and new information. Health professionals have a huge responsibility for the health, well-being, and survival of others. Therefore, health professionals must be particularly adept and relating to other people, learning and gathering information about a patient, and applying it to the treatment and care of that patient based on medical knowledge. For many healthcare roles, degrees and certifications are required for licensure to practice in a certain capacity. Many allied healthcare jobs require at least an associate’s degree, most nurses need bachelor’s degrees, and physicians and advanced practice nurses must have many years of post-graduate training to include master’s and doctorate degrees. Many way wonder why there is a need for additional training after all the time they spent learning at school. In any job, there are always specific skills that make the job operate smoother. Learning how to perform in an veryday situation takes a little training, which cannot be learned in the classroom. According to Element K, training keeps staff members motivated and up to date with ever-changing industry trends. Continual training also allows exposure to new technologies, which is essential to achieving goals. Training on the job not only benefits the employee, but also the employer. Although there is a cost as sociated with training employees regularly, Element K says, Training brings direct benefits to businesses and can be calculated as a return on investment. Other benefits that a business can expect from training are less turnover, happier employees, less need for supervision and more productive employees. Thinking about all the education and training can be overwhelming and may lead a person to ask, Is all the time spent getting an education and additional training worth it? The answer is yes. Job training will challenge employees to learn more and therefore get more involved in their jobs, which in turn leads to higher job satisfaction. It appears the benefits for an individual to invest in themselves by getting an education and training far outweigh the daunting task set before them. References (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. ahcancal. org/facility_operations/ComplianceProgram/Pages/TrainingEducation. aspx Saxton, J. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. stevenslee. com/practice/hcrm/education. html Santiago, A. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://healthcareers. about. com/od/educationtraining/f/WhyEducation. htm